Towards Decolonising African Political Values: A Critique of the Dominant Political Views and Practices in Nigeria
Main Article Content
Abstract
Since independence, the political systems in African states have been western in character, and have, consequently, failed to synchronise with their peculiar realities, resulting in political crises, coups, and developmental woes. Nigeria – Africa’s largest democracy – is one of the states replete with colonially induced contradictions, controversies and developmental conundrum, and is the central focus of this paper. Using desk review of qualitative data, the paper establishes that Western political values operate more as liabilities than assets in Africa, hence the need for complete decolonisation – a multifaceted project that transcends the transfer of sovereignty. In line with a scholarly tradition that advocates the resurgence of functional African values, the paper makes a case for reforming African states’ structures, political systems, and economic systems as the surest route to completing the decolonisation project.
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References
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Ajayi, A. T. & Ojo, E. O. (2014). Democracy in Nigeria: Practice, problems and prospects. Developing Country Studies, 4(2), 107 – 125.
Amaechi, N. (1994). Can Nigeria survive? Political Sociology of how Nigerians underdeveloped Nigeria. Trans African Links.
Antia, O. R. U. (2005). Akwa-Ibom cultural heritage: Its incursion by Western culture and its renaissance. Abbny Publishers.
Asiwaju, A. I. (1990). Artificial boundaries. Civiletis International.
Awoniyi, S. (2015). African cultural values: The past, present and future. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 17(1), 1 – 13.
Ayua, I. A. & Dakas, D. C. J. (n.d.). Federal republic of Nigeria. An International Network on Federalism & International Association of Centres for Federal Studies.
Azikiwe, N. (1984). Democracy with military vigilance. African Books co.
Birmingham, D. (2005). The decolonization of Africa. UCL Press.
Chirisa, I. E. W., Mumba, A. & and Dirwai, S. 0. (2014). A review of the evolution and trajectory of the African Union as an instrument of regional integration. Springer Plus, 3, 101 http://www.springerplus.com/content/3/1/101
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Collins, M. (2017). Nation, state and agency: Evolving historiographies of African decolonization. In A. W. M. Smith, & C. Jeppesen (eds.), Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect? (pp. 17 – 42). University College London.
Columbus, O. (2014). African cultural values and inter-communal relations: The case with Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, (4)24, 208 – 217.
Connell, R. (2018). Decolonizing Sociology. Contemporary Sociology, 47, 399 – 407.
Creary, N. M. (n.d.). Introduction. In N. M. Creary (ed.), African Intellectuals and Decolonization, 90, (pp. 1 – 11). Ohio University Press.
Crozier, B. (1964). Neo-colonialism. The Bodley Head Ltd.
Elaigwu, J. I. (1998, September 30). Federal structure for sustainable development. The Heraid.
Emuleomo, A. (2016, June 16). Abacha’s coup speech… after Shagari was overthrown and Buhari installed (full text). YNaija. https://ynaija.com/armed-forces-ready-to-lay-it-life-for-nigeria-abachas-speech-after-successful-bloodless-coup/
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Fadakinte, M. M. (2013). The nature and character of the Nigerian state: Explaining election crisis in a peripheral state. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 12(2), 275 – 287.
Falola, T. & Heaton, M. M. (2008). A history of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press.
Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of the earth. Groves Press.
Gilley, B. (2017). The case for colonialism. Third World Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1369037
Human Rights Watch (2007, October 11). Criminal politics: Violence, “godfathers” and corruption in Nigeria. https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/10/11/criminal-politics/violence-godfathers-and-corruption-nigeria#_ftn371
Idang, G. E. (2015). African culture and values. Phronimon, 16(2), 97 – 111.
Irrum, S. (2023, February 15). Africa: World’s richest yet poorest continent. Daily Times. https://dailytimes.com.pk/1062878/africa-worlds-richest-yet-poorest-continent/
Kambudzi, A. M. (2001). Issues and Problems of Political Renewal in Africa. In O. Adesida & A. Oteh (eds.), African Voices, African Visions (pp. 53 – 66). The Nordic Africa Institute.
Kifordu, H. A (2013). Nigerian political systems since political independence: Changes and trejectories (sic.). Hegemonia – Revista Eletrônica de Relações Internacionais do Centro Universitário Unieuro, 12, 87 – 124.
Kelter, K. (2018). Development in Tanzania: From foreign aid dependency to impact investment. Senior Theses, Trinity College Digital Repository. https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/717
Mazrui, A. A. (1973). Thoughts on assassination in Africa. In M. H. Prosser (ed.), Intercommunication Among Nations and Peoples. Harper and Row Publishers Incessories.
Mazrui, A. A (1978). Political values and the educated class in Africa. University of California Press.
Mbembe, J. (2016). Decolonizing the university: New directions. Arts & Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1), 29 – 45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474022215618513
Moyo, S. & Yeros, P. (2011). Introduction: The fall and rise of the national question. In S. Moyo & P. Yeros (eds.), Reclaiming the nation: The return of the national question in Africa, Asia and Latin America (pp. 3 – 28). Chicago University Press.
Mutua, M. (2016). Africa and the rule of law. Sur - International Journal on Human Rights, 13(23), 159 – 173.
National Conference (2014, May 28). Committee Leadership. https://web.archive.org/web/20140528024701/http://www.nigerianationalconference2014.org/Committes-Leaderhip#.U4VOP-vgpPw
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2015). Genealogies of coloniality and implications for Africa’s development. Africa Development, 40(3), 13 – 40.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2018). The dynamics of epistemological decolonisation in the 21st century: Towards epistemic freedom. Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 40(1), 6 – 45. https://doi.org/10.35293/srsa.v40i1.268
Nigeria & Yar’adua, U. M. (2007). The servant leader: The inaugural address of President Umaru Musa Yar'adua. Office of the President, Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Nyerere, J., K. (1971). Ujamaa: Essays on socialism. Oxford University Press.
Obijiofor, L. M. (2001). The future of Africa lies in home-grown solutions. In O. Adesida & A. Oteh (eds.), African Voices, African Visions (pp. 131 – 146). The Nordic Africa Institute.
Ogbeidi, M. M. (2012). Political leadership and corruption in Nigeria since 1960: A socio-economic analysis. Journal of Nigeria Studies1(2), 1–25.
Ogbunwezeh, F. (2005, March 27). Africa: The ontology of failed states. Dawodu.com. http://www.dawodu.com/ogbunwezeh1.htm
Omodia, S. M. (2009). Elections and democratic survival in the fourth republic of Nigeria. Journal of Pan African Studies,3(3), 35 – 42.
Orluwene, O. B. (2018). The challenges and pathologies of Nigerian federalism. Social Science and Law Journal of Policy Review and Development Strategies, 6(1), 72 – 87.
Oshunkeye, S. (2010, October 17). Riding a camel in a jet age. Sunday Sun, p. 60.
Owusu, M. (1991). Democracy and Africa: A view from the village. The Journal of Modern African Studies,30(3), 369 – 396.
Pillay, S. (2013, April 5). Decolonising the humanities. Mail & Guardian. https://mg.co.za/article/2013-04-05-decolonising-the-humanities/
Raji, R. A. & Wahab, E. I. (2016). Trends of political instability in Nigeria: The way forward. Nigerian Journal of Social Studies, 19(1), 49 – 60.
Sachs, J., Lafortune, G., Kroll, C., Fuller, G. & Woelm, F. (2022). Sustainable development report 2022. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009210058
Samuel, O. & Joshua, S. (2010). Resurgence of traditional institutions of governance: Imperative for state-building in Africa. Slovenská Politologická Revue, 3(10), 2 – 15.
Sankara, T. (2005). We are the heirs of the world’s revolutions: Speeches from the Burkina Faso revolution 1983 – 87. Pathfinder Press.
Simpkins, J. (2004). The role of constitution-building processes in democratization: Case Study Nigeria (External perspective). International IDEA Democracy-building & Conflict Management (DCM). http://www.idea.int/conflict/cbp/
Skinner, E. P. (1998). African political cultures and the problems of government. African Studies Quarterly, 2(3), 17 – 25. http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v2/v2i3a3.pdf
Smith, A. W. M. & Jeppesen, C. (2017). Introduction: Development, contingency and entanglement: Decolonization in the conditional. In A. W. M. Smith & C. Jeppesen (eds.), Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect? (pp. 1 – 14). UCL Press. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781911307730
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2022). Human Development Reports: Human Development Index (HDI). https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI
wa Thiong’o, N. (1986). Decolonizing the mind: The Politics of language in African literature. James Currey.
Whitaker, C. S. (1970). The Politics of tradition and continuity in northern Nigeria. Princeton University Press.
Abba, S. A. & Babalola, D. (2017). Contending issues in political parties in Nigeria: The candidate selection process. Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies, 11(1), 118 – 134.
Ajayi, A. T. & Ojo, E. O. (2014). Democracy in Nigeria: Practice, problems and prospects. Developing Country Studies, 4(2), 107 – 125.
Amaechi, N. (1994). Can Nigeria survive? Political Sociology of how Nigerians underdeveloped Nigeria. Trans African Links.
Antia, O. R. U. (2005). Akwa-Ibom cultural heritage: Its incursion by Western culture and its renaissance. Abbny Publishers.
Asiwaju, A. I. (1990). Artificial boundaries. Civiletis International.
Awoniyi, S. (2015). African cultural values: The past, present and future. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 17(1), 1 – 13.
Ayua, I. A. & Dakas, D. C. J. (n.d.). Federal republic of Nigeria. An International Network on Federalism & International Association of Centres for Federal Studies.
Azikiwe, N. (1984). Democracy with military vigilance. African Books co.
Birmingham, D. (2005). The decolonization of Africa. UCL Press.
Chirisa, I. E. W., Mumba, A. & and Dirwai, S. 0. (2014). A review of the evolution and trajectory of the African Union as an instrument of regional integration. Springer Plus, 3, 101 http://www.springerplus.com/content/3/1/101
Chitonge, H. (2018). Trails of incomplete decolonisation in Africa: The land question and economic structural transformation. African Study Monographs, 57, 21 – 43. https://doi.org/10.14989/233007
Collins, M. (2017). Nation, state and agency: Evolving historiographies of African decolonization. In A. W. M. Smith, & C. Jeppesen (eds.), Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect? (pp. 17 – 42). University College London.
Columbus, O. (2014). African cultural values and inter-communal relations: The case with Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, (4)24, 208 – 217.
Connell, R. (2018). Decolonizing Sociology. Contemporary Sociology, 47, 399 – 407.
Creary, N. M. (n.d.). Introduction. In N. M. Creary (ed.), African Intellectuals and Decolonization, 90, (pp. 1 – 11). Ohio University Press.
Crozier, B. (1964). Neo-colonialism. The Bodley Head Ltd.
Elaigwu, J. I. (1998, September 30). Federal structure for sustainable development. The Heraid.
Emuleomo, A. (2016, June 16). Abacha’s coup speech… after Shagari was overthrown and Buhari installed (full text). YNaija. https://ynaija.com/armed-forces-ready-to-lay-it-life-for-nigeria-abachas-speech-after-successful-bloodless-coup/
Eurostat (2023, April). SDG 17 - Partnerships for the goals. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development.
Fadakinte, M. M. (2013). The nature and character of the Nigerian state: Explaining election crisis in a peripheral state. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 12(2), 275 – 287.
Falola, T. & Heaton, M. M. (2008). A history of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press.
Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of the earth. Groves Press.
Gilley, B. (2017). The case for colonialism. Third World Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1369037
Human Rights Watch (2007, October 11). Criminal politics: Violence, “godfathers” and corruption in Nigeria. https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/10/11/criminal-politics/violence-godfathers-and-corruption-nigeria#_ftn371
Idang, G. E. (2015). African culture and values. Phronimon, 16(2), 97 – 111.
Irrum, S. (2023, February 15). Africa: World’s richest yet poorest continent. Daily Times. https://dailytimes.com.pk/1062878/africa-worlds-richest-yet-poorest-continent/
Kambudzi, A. M. (2001). Issues and Problems of Political Renewal in Africa. In O. Adesida & A. Oteh (eds.), African Voices, African Visions (pp. 53 – 66). The Nordic Africa Institute.
Kifordu, H. A (2013). Nigerian political systems since political independence: Changes and trejectories (sic.). Hegemonia – Revista Eletrônica de Relações Internacionais do Centro Universitário Unieuro, 12, 87 – 124.
Kelter, K. (2018). Development in Tanzania: From foreign aid dependency to impact investment. Senior Theses, Trinity College Digital Repository. https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/717
Mazrui, A. A. (1973). Thoughts on assassination in Africa. In M. H. Prosser (ed.), Intercommunication Among Nations and Peoples. Harper and Row Publishers Incessories.
Mazrui, A. A (1978). Political values and the educated class in Africa. University of California Press.
Mbembe, J. (2016). Decolonizing the university: New directions. Arts & Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1), 29 – 45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474022215618513
Moyo, S. & Yeros, P. (2011). Introduction: The fall and rise of the national question. In S. Moyo & P. Yeros (eds.), Reclaiming the nation: The return of the national question in Africa, Asia and Latin America (pp. 3 – 28). Chicago University Press.
Mutua, M. (2016). Africa and the rule of law. Sur - International Journal on Human Rights, 13(23), 159 – 173.
National Conference (2014, May 28). Committee Leadership. https://web.archive.org/web/20140528024701/http://www.nigerianationalconference2014.org/Committes-Leaderhip#.U4VOP-vgpPw
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2015). Genealogies of coloniality and implications for Africa’s development. Africa Development, 40(3), 13 – 40.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2018). The dynamics of epistemological decolonisation in the 21st century: Towards epistemic freedom. Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 40(1), 6 – 45. https://doi.org/10.35293/srsa.v40i1.268
Nigeria & Yar’adua, U. M. (2007). The servant leader: The inaugural address of President Umaru Musa Yar'adua. Office of the President, Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Nyerere, J., K. (1971). Ujamaa: Essays on socialism. Oxford University Press.
Obijiofor, L. M. (2001). The future of Africa lies in home-grown solutions. In O. Adesida & A. Oteh (eds.), African Voices, African Visions (pp. 131 – 146). The Nordic Africa Institute.
Ogbeidi, M. M. (2012). Political leadership and corruption in Nigeria since 1960: A socio-economic analysis. Journal of Nigeria Studies1(2), 1–25.
Ogbunwezeh, F. (2005, March 27). Africa: The ontology of failed states. Dawodu.com. http://www.dawodu.com/ogbunwezeh1.htm
Omodia, S. M. (2009). Elections and democratic survival in the fourth republic of Nigeria. Journal of Pan African Studies,3(3), 35 – 42.
Orluwene, O. B. (2018). The challenges and pathologies of Nigerian federalism. Social Science and Law Journal of Policy Review and Development Strategies, 6(1), 72 – 87.
Oshunkeye, S. (2010, October 17). Riding a camel in a jet age. Sunday Sun, p. 60.
Owusu, M. (1991). Democracy and Africa: A view from the village. The Journal of Modern African Studies,30(3), 369 – 396.
Pillay, S. (2013, April 5). Decolonising the humanities. Mail & Guardian. https://mg.co.za/article/2013-04-05-decolonising-the-humanities/
Raji, R. A. & Wahab, E. I. (2016). Trends of political instability in Nigeria: The way forward. Nigerian Journal of Social Studies, 19(1), 49 – 60.
Sachs, J., Lafortune, G., Kroll, C., Fuller, G. & Woelm, F. (2022). Sustainable development report 2022. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009210058
Samuel, O. & Joshua, S. (2010). Resurgence of traditional institutions of governance: Imperative for state-building in Africa. Slovenská Politologická Revue, 3(10), 2 – 15.
Sankara, T. (2005). We are the heirs of the world’s revolutions: Speeches from the Burkina Faso revolution 1983 – 87. Pathfinder Press.
Simpkins, J. (2004). The role of constitution-building processes in democratization: Case Study Nigeria (External perspective). International IDEA Democracy-building & Conflict Management (DCM). http://www.idea.int/conflict/cbp/
Skinner, E. P. (1998). African political cultures and the problems of government. African Studies Quarterly, 2(3), 17 – 25. http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v2/v2i3a3.pdf
Smith, A. W. M. & Jeppesen, C. (2017). Introduction: Development, contingency and entanglement: Decolonization in the conditional. In A. W. M. Smith & C. Jeppesen (eds.), Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect? (pp. 1 – 14). UCL Press. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781911307730
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2022). Human Development Reports: Human Development Index (HDI). https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI
wa Thiong’o, N. (1986). Decolonizing the mind: The Politics of language in African literature. James Currey.
Whitaker, C. S. (1970). The Politics of tradition and continuity in northern Nigeria. Princeton University Press.
Abba, S. A. & Babalola, D. (2017). Contending issues in political parties in Nigeria: The candidate selection process. Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies, 11(1), 118 – 134.
Ajayi, A. T. & Ojo, E. O. (2014). Democracy in Nigeria: Practice, problems and prospects. Developing Country Studies, 4(2), 107 – 125.
Amaechi, N. (1994). Can Nigeria survive? Political Sociology of how Nigerians underdeveloped Nigeria. Trans African Links.
Antia, O. R. U. (2005). Akwa-Ibom cultural heritage: Its incursion by Western culture and its renaissance. Abbny Publishers.
Asiwaju, A. I. (1990). Artificial boundaries. Civiletis International.
Awoniyi, S. (2015). African cultural values: The past, present and future. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 17(1), 1 – 13.
Ayua, I. A. & Dakas, D. C. J. (n.d.). Federal republic of Nigeria. An International Network on Federalism & International Association of Centres for Federal Studies.
Azikiwe, N. (1984). Democracy with military vigilance. African Books co.
Birmingham, D. (2005). The decolonization of Africa. UCL Press.
Chirisa, I. E. W., Mumba, A. & and Dirwai, S. 0. (2014). A review of the evolution and trajectory of the African Union as an instrument of regional integration. Springer Plus, 3, 101 http://www.springerplus.com/content/3/1/101
Chitonge, H. (2018). Trails of incomplete decolonisation in Africa: The land question and economic structural transformation. African Study Monographs, 57, 21 – 43. https://doi.org/10.14989/233007
Collins, M. (2017). Nation, state and agency: Evolving historiographies of African decolonization. In A. W. M. Smith, & C. Jeppesen (eds.), Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect? (pp. 17 – 42). University College London.
Columbus, O. (2014). African cultural values and inter-communal relations: The case with Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, (4)24, 208 – 217.
Connell, R. (2018). Decolonizing Sociology. Contemporary Sociology, 47, 399 – 407.
Creary, N. M. (n.d.). Introduction. In N. M. Creary (ed.), African Intellectuals and Decolonization, 90, (pp. 1 – 11). Ohio University Press.
Crozier, B. (1964). Neo-colonialism. The Bodley Head Ltd.
Elaigwu, J. I. (1998, September 30). Federal structure for sustainable development. The Heraid.
Emuleomo, A. (2016, June 16). Abacha’s coup speech… after Shagari was overthrown and Buhari installed (full text). YNaija. https://ynaija.com/armed-forces-ready-to-lay-it-life-for-nigeria-abachas-speech-after-successful-bloodless-coup/
Eurostat (2023, April). SDG 17 - Partnerships for the goals. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development.
Fadakinte, M. M. (2013). The nature and character of the Nigerian state: Explaining election crisis in a peripheral state. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 12(2), 275 – 287.
Falola, T. & Heaton, M. M. (2008). A history of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press.
Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of the earth. Groves Press.
Gilley, B. (2017). The case for colonialism. Third World Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1369037
Human Rights Watch (2007, October 11). Criminal politics: Violence, “godfathers” and corruption in Nigeria. https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/10/11/criminal-politics/violence-godfathers-and-corruption-nigeria#_ftn371
Idang, G. E. (2015). African culture and values. Phronimon, 16(2), 97 – 111.
Irrum, S. (2023, February 15). Africa: World’s richest yet poorest continent. Daily Times. https://dailytimes.com.pk/1062878/africa-worlds-richest-yet-poorest-continent/
Kambudzi, A. M. (2001). Issues and Problems of Political Renewal in Africa. In O. Adesida & A. Oteh (eds.), African Voices, African Visions (pp. 53 – 66). The Nordic Africa Institute.
Kifordu, H. A (2013). Nigerian political systems since political independence: Changes and trejectories (sic.). Hegemonia – Revista Eletrônica de Relações Internacionais do Centro Universitário Unieuro, 12, 87 – 124.
Kelter, K. (2018). Development in Tanzania: From foreign aid dependency to impact investment. Senior Theses, Trinity College Digital Repository. https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/717
Mazrui, A. A. (1973). Thoughts on assassination in Africa. In M. H. Prosser (ed.), Intercommunication Among Nations and Peoples. Harper and Row Publishers Incessories.
Mazrui, A. A (1978). Political values and the educated class in Africa. University of California Press.
Mbembe, J. (2016). Decolonizing the university: New directions. Arts & Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1), 29 – 45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474022215618513
Moyo, S. & Yeros, P. (2011). Introduction: The fall and rise of the national question. In S. Moyo & P. Yeros (eds.), Reclaiming the nation: The return of the national question in Africa, Asia and Latin America (pp. 3 – 28). Chicago University Press.
Mutua, M. (2016). Africa and the rule of law. Sur - International Journal on Human Rights, 13(23), 159 – 173.
National Conference (2014, May 28). Committee Leadership. https://web.archive.org/web/20140528024701/http://www.nigerianationalconference2014.org/Committes-Leaderhip#.U4VOP-vgpPw
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2015). Genealogies of coloniality and implications for Africa’s development. Africa Development, 40(3), 13 – 40.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2018). The dynamics of epistemological decolonisation in the 21st century: Towards epistemic freedom. Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 40(1), 6 – 45. https://doi.org/10.35293/srsa.v40i1.268
Nigeria & Yar’adua, U. M. (2007). The servant leader: The inaugural address of President Umaru Musa Yar'adua. Office of the President, Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Nyerere, J., K. (1971). Ujamaa: Essays on socialism. Oxford University Press.
Obijiofor, L. M. (2001). The future of Africa lies in home-grown solutions. In O. Adesida & A. Oteh (eds.), African Voices, African Visions (pp. 131 – 146). The Nordic Africa Institute.
Ogbeidi, M. M. (2012). Political leadership and corruption in Nigeria since 1960: A socio-economic analysis. Journal of Nigeria Studies1(2), 1–25.
Ogbunwezeh, F. (2005, March 27). Africa: The ontology of failed states. Dawodu.com. http://www.dawodu.com/ogbunwezeh1.htm
Omodia, S. M. (2009). Elections and democratic survival in the fourth republic of Nigeria. Journal of Pan African Studies,3(3), 35 – 42.
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